An
understanding of culture requires an understanding not only of language
differences, but also differences in knowledge, perceptions, beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors.
Culture
(from the Latin cultura stemming
from colere, meaning "to cultivate") generally refers to patterns of
human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities
significance and importance. Cultures can be "understood as systems of
symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed
boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one
another."
Learning objectives
At
the end of this article, you should be able to:
1. Know
the best definition of culture
2. Understand
the characteristics of culture
3. Know
the 4 types of culture
4. Know
the examples/ element of culture
Definition of Culture
Culture
can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions
of a population that is passed down from generation to generation. Culture has
been called "the way of life for an entire society." As such, it
includes codes of manners, dress, language, religion, rituals, and art.
Norms
of behavior, such as law and morality, and systems of belief.
Culture is an umbrella term
which encompasses the social behavior and norms found
in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs,
capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.
Humans
acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization,
which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.
A cultural
norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for
behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a
template for expectations in a social group. Accepting only a monoculture in
a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face
of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change. Thus in military
culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and
duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or
functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of
religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.
Roop
Rekha Verma defines culture as "a system of the patterns and the modes of
expectations, expressions, values, institutionalization and enjoyment habits of
people in general."
Thus
we can see that the various definitions of culture do not lay stress on the
outward behavior that can be observed but on the ethics and ideas from which
attitudes and behavior originate. With so many different perspectives on
culture, it is difficult to give one, universal, blanket definition that would
cover all aspects because both the meaning and aim of culture is so vast. In
culture can be found, the origin and evolution of all the thoughts, customs,
objectives and ethics of a particular country or society. It can rightly be
said that culture is traditional yet dynamic as it keeps expanding and
developing. It is the foundation of the lifestyle of a nation and continuously
supports the progress of the members of that society towards a civilized,
liberal and enlightened way of life. It is a collection of abstract concepts
that have gradually evolved from time immemorial which have contributed to the
growth of human society. For any nation, its cultural values form the basis of
its progress and its power which can thus, without exaggeration, be called the
real wealth of a nation.
The Characteristics of culture
There
are four basic characteristics of culture. The first thing we can say about
culture is that it is common to a group of people who make up a particular
society. It can be said that culture is like an ensemble of signs that every
person puts up for the others so that he can be identified in a distinct
manner. It marks out and shows how we are different:
It
is not hereditary but something that is learned after birth during the period
of socialization. Culture is the different ways we have of knowing not only
others but also ourselves. The culture of urban spaces - the indifference that
is so much a part of urbanization - allows an intermingling of various
cultures. When two people of different cultures meet and interact in an urban
social situation, that space is, in a sense, a sort of no-man's-land and
belongs to neither in particular. So, as sociologist George Simmel says,
modern, urban culture is as much about indifference as it is about difference.
Culture is associated with various symbols such as an image, an object of worship, rituals, texts and artifacts to continue its flow and it is dependent on people following the codes of conventions associated with a specific culture. It is something that is learnt and internalized by that particular community. However, none of these symbols should be confused with the culture itself. They may be the conduit into the processes of a culture but they have meaning, only insofar as, a network of people make use of them in particular ways. In this way, a colour, a stone, a gesture may become a sign. We cannot say that we can understand a culture merely by looking at its signs. We have to see what part they play in the lives of the people, how they are used - and abused - in their daily lives.
It is an amalgamation of social, economic and political features. Cultural historian Raymond Williams refers to culture as a whole way of life, or a structure of feeling. This definition underlies the idea of culture being something that one imbibes, often unconsciously and which influences and shapes all things in your life, your attitudes, how you perceive something, how you react to it etc.
Since culture is a collection of rules or
signs that regulate our actions and reactions, they can also determine whether
or not we are tolerant of differences and how we get along with those of other
cultures or with rule-breakers. Some cultures deal strictly with those who
break their rules while others, which are more secure about themselves, take
such things in their stride. Thus culture, depending on the conventions, place,
time etc, can be either closed or open to differences. Quite often, the
openness or otherwise of a particular culture is determined by ethical or
political factors both towards those on the inside of that culture and towards
those on the outside of it. This gives rise to cultural politics and cultural
relativism.
Culture provides a sense of identity to its members, thus helping them cope with difficulties during times of stress and lends meaning and continuity. Where the forces of capitalism and the marketplace have eroded the sense of continuity due to rapid political and economic changes and, as Karl Marx said, 'all that is solid melts into air, all that is sacred is profaned', culture is the one process that affirms one's sense of self and identity in this increasingly divided and fragmented world of consumerism. Sometimes, there is a conflict between the forces that drive the economy of a nation and the passions that fuel a culture and which view economy as being a supplement to culture and not the other way around.
Culture can never be the result of any one single person's initiative or endeavor nor can it be said to be the consequence of any particular incident at any particular time. It is a slow and gradual evolution over epochs and history. Culture is the collected legacy of innumerable ventures, trials and experiences over time as societies and civilizations evolve over time. It is not something that is established or altered within the span of one generation or period but is what slowly develops over a period of centuries. Within the infinite ramifications of culture is encompassed the history of all aspects of all human societies. It registers the movement and waves of thoughts and deeds; the ascent and descent of empires and civilizations; the barriers that came in the way of human progress; the cycles of ruin and regeneration of societies at the social, national and global levels. All and any advancements made - whether in psychology, art, science, politics, economy or dealing with the spiritual realm - are recorded in culture.
So
we can say that the backbone of any society is its culture. Whether it is the
art, traditions, festivals, ceremonies, even dress and food, it is the culture
of the community which is a deciding factor. If, for any reason there is any
block or interference in the growth and transmission of cultural values, the
entire structure of that particular society would change. Civilization can be
said to be the external appearance of culture and the two are inextricably
connected. Civilization is the expression of culture while culture is the
origin and strength of a civilization. If culture cannot exist without people,
people also cannot survive without culture. Perhaps it would not be wrong to
state that the social function culture performs in a society is its true
meaning as it primarily plays the role of expressing, informing and
socializing. However, like the products of culture which mirror a social
actuality, so also, we can say that the meaning of culture mirrors a reality
that goes beyond factual, prosaic and scientific explanations. For some people,
culture is the reflection of a spiritual force that precedes all thought and
interaction.
Everyone's
life is influenced by the culture that surrounds them. If we were to distance
ourselves from our culture, our lives would cease to have a direction and flow
and it is therefore essential for us to maintain vibrant contact with our
cultural heritage. Culture differs according to place, time, community and race
and this is natural. However, when a particular culture is founded upon values
of universal significance, it expands and lasts even after the society that
gave rise to it is wiped out. On the other hand, if a culture has its source in
greed or fanatically rigid ideology, it will not stand the test of time and
will soon die away. Any culture that is too rigid, does not adapt, or is not
dynamic, would be lost. In its truest sense, culture is like a stream or river
that flows around obstacles, changing course when needed without stopping its
flow. None of the cultures that established their realm over a period of
centuries and over different geographical spaces remained static. The secret
behind their influence and longevity was their readiness to accept new inputs
and to assimilate them all into a harmonious whole.
Types of Culture
We
have 'corporate culture' that refers to the wheeling-dealing world of the
corporate sector; there is the 'competitive culture' in educational
institutions that encourages the students to give their best; there is
'consumerist culture' which highlights status and spending power and is related
to greater material satisfaction; there is 'emerging culture' that is an index
of attitudes and behavior patterns of a specific group. By such free use of
this word, it almost appears as though the basic meaning of culture has been
lost!
Culture may be broadly
divided into the following types:
1)
High culture
2)
Low culture.
3)
Popular culture.
4) Folk culture.
1 High culture
The term 'high culture' was introduced in
English by the Victorian poet-critic, Matthew Arnold through his work Culture
and Anarchy (1869). For him, 'high culture' was a force that encouraged moral
and political good. He said that this meant to "know the best that has
been said and thought in the world" and he defined 'high culture' as the
"study of perfection". The poet T. S. Eliot, in his Notes towards the
definition of Culture (1948) felt that both high culture and popular culture
were essential for there to be a complete culture.
Much
of 'high culture' pertains to the appreciation of 'high art', a term that
includes Literature, Performing Arts, Music and the Visual Arts. What was
regarded as being a part of this 'high culture' was that which had mostly been
created during a time when the artist had the patronage of wealthy,
sophisticated and aesthetically inclined people and was thus able to produce
works of art in an atmosphere that was free of financial or other tensions.
Hence, the Western concept of 'high art' flows from the Graeco-Roman period and
through the Renaissance. Of course, it existed in other societies as well,
notably the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, Rome, India, Byzantium,
Persia and China etc. 'High Culture' refers to paintings or cinema by the
acknowledged masters, classical music or dance and writing that has been
established as canons. Although it has been criticized as being elitist and
catering only to the educated, urban, affluent class, efforts have frequently
been made to involve the general public in exhibitions or concerts that
featured 'high culture'. Governments of various countries also promote it by
funding museums and libraries and subsidizing theatre or music groups. As
access to books and education gradually opened up, academicians took up the
study of all aspects of high culture and courses that focus on liberal arts
promote this concept although they do not nowadays, use this specific term. In
the fields of Cultural Studies, Media Studies, Critical Theory, Sociology,
Marxist thought and postmodernism, the issue of high culture vis-a-vis popular
or mass culture has been focused on in a variety of ways. It has also been an
important concern in the field of political theory on Nationalism. For
instance, Ernest Gellner viewed it as an essential feature in the formation of
a composite national identity and he defined high culture as"...a literate
codified culture which permits context free communication". He
distinguishes between various cultures rather than on the differences within a
particular culture and contrasts 'high culture' with less complicated, agriculture-based
'low cultures'. Yet Sociology related, broader, class based concept of 'high
culture' defines it as, "taste", under which can be found etiquette,
appreciation of fine food and wine etc. It also refers to certain social rules
that are meant for the upper class and which are not accessible to the lower
classes.
2. Low Culture
This is a disparaging term, used for some
varieties of popular culture and is viewed as the opposite of 'high culture'.
Some culture theorists opine that both 'high' and 'low' cultures are
subcultures. In the post-Modern era, it often appears that the line of
distinction between both has almost been erased. Examples of 'low culture' are
kitsch, slapstick, escapist or pulp fiction or cinema and popular music and dance
(as opposed to classical music and dance). The Romantic Movement was among the
first to take another look at the supposed 'low culture' and re-value it at a
time when medieval romances that had earlier been disparaged began to influence
literature. 'Low culture' is also another term for popular culture i.e, that
which has mass appeal. This could include things in society as diverse as
gossip magazines or talk shows, sports like football or cricket, film music and
books that are currently best sellers or even take-away food.
3. Popular culture
In the fifteenth century, the word 'popular'
when used in law and politics, denoted 'low', 'base', 'vulgar' and 'of the
common people'. It was not until the latter part of the eighteenth century that
the word gained the positive connotation of what it is taken to mean today
'widespread' and 'well-liked'. This type of culture, also known as pop culture,
as the term suggests, is related to all those activities (along with their
associated symbols) that are popular or common. The question which arises is
how is this determined? It is determined most often by the mass media which
defines and even determines what is popular in the social context - i.e. all
that is accepted by the majority of the members of a society. Popular culture
is also taken to mean all those cultural factors that are widely prevalent in a
particular society and which are transmitted through the local language.
Popular culture features constant change and is limited by both space and time.
It flows, forms alternative streams and whirlpools which together create values
and attitudes that are inter-dependent and influential in various ways.
Elements of pop culture may actually diversify or evolve into a separate
sub-culture as well. Whatever constitutes popular culture appeals to an
extensive section of the public.
Popular
culture is also often defined as Mass Culture, which is commercially driven,
mass-produced and is meant for mass consumption. It can also be termed as the
'authentic' culture because it most reflects the tastes and fashions of the
majority of that period. It is often seen as being almost antithetical to the
exclusive, elitist 'high culture' and a sign of resistance by the masses.
Popular
culture has been seen to have emerged from the shift to urbanization after the
Industrial Revolution. Popular culture embraces a range of fields from mass
media and entertainment to cooking, literature, clothing, sports, fashion,
music, etc. and is expressed through circulation in large numbers. It has had
great influence on art, notably that which was produced from the fifties
onwards in the UK and the USA. It is frequently viewed as superficial, driven
by consumerist motives, corrupted (and capable of corrupting), sensationalist
in nature and catering to the lowest common denominator and therefore
criticized, especially by religious organizations. There is the view that it is
debased and inconsequential and one which not only skirts the deep realities of
life but also, at the same time, ignores the simple, artless joys of existence.
Some works appear to blur the fine line that demarcates 'high' and 'popular'
culture and seem to belong to both categories for one or the other reason.
4 Folk cultures
This is the tradition and customs of a
particular community or society that is reflected in the local lifestyle. Folk
culture is usually transmitted from generation to generation through the oral
tradition and is imbued with a strong feeling of community. It also shows up
the differences between what used to be done and the new ways of doing it. In
earlier times during the pre-industrial eras, folk culture was equivalent to
mass culture and hence could also be called the popular culture of that time.
Folklore
was and is a part of popular culture that is usually spread through word of
mouth and in these modern times, through the Internet and SMS, evolving over
time and usage.
Folk
culture is firmly rooted to a sense of place. Even when some elements of it are
shifted to a new locale, as in the case of migration, the displaced elements
still carry strong connotations of the place of their origin. What
distinguishes folk culture from popular culture is that the former places
emphasis on looking inward without reference to the outside, unlike the latter.
However, it must not be forgotten that folk culture has always influenced both
'popular' and 'high' culture and many features of folk culture have gone on to
become an indistinguishable and inextricable part of both these cultures.
The Examples/ Elements of Culture
Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language,
beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of any society. As this definition
suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas and symbols on the
one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type, called nonmaterial culture, includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that
define a society. The second type, called material culture, includes all the society’s physical objects,
such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of
transportation. These elements of culture are discussed next.
1. Symbols
Every
culture is filled with symbols,
or things that stand for something else and that often evokes various reactions
and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while
other symbols are in fact material objects. Shared symbols make social
interaction possible.
Let’s look at nonverbal
symbols first. A common one is shaking hands, which is done in some societies
but not in others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both
greeting and departure. Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the hands, arms, or other parts of the body
that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions.
However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society
and something quite different in another society.
As these examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal
communication and tangible objects, are an important part of any culture but
also can lead to misunderstandings and even hostility. These problems
underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction and meaning.
2. Language
Perhaps
our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the word chair means
something we sit on. In Spanish, the word silla means the same thing. As long as we agree how to
interpret these words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the
same token, differences in languages can make it quite difficult to
communicate. For example, imagine you are in a foreign country where you do not
know the language and the country’s citizens do not know yours. Worse yet, you
forgot to bring your dictionary that translates their language into yours, and
vice versa, and your iPhone battery has died. You become lost. How will you get
help? What will you do? Is there any way to communicate your plight?
As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to
communication and thus to any society’s culture. Children learn language from
their culture just as they learn about shaking hands, about gestures, and about
the significance of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a capacity for
language that no other animal species possesses. Our capacity for language in
turn helps make our complex culture possible.
Language, of course, can be spoken or written. One of the
most important developments in the evolution of society was the creation of
written language. Some of the preindustrial societies that anthropologists have
studied have written language, while others do not, and in the remaining
societies the “written” language consists mainly of pictures, not words.
3. Norms
Cultures
differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for behaving. We
already saw that the nature of drunken behavior depends on society’s
expectations of how people should behave when drunk. Norms of drunken behavior
influence how we behave when we drink too much.
Norms are often divided into two types, formal norms and informal norms. Formal norms, also called mores (MOOR-ayz)
and laws, refer to the
standards of behavior considered the most important in any society. Examples in
the United States include traffic laws, criminal codes, and, in a college
context, student behavior codes addressing such things as cheating and hate
speech. Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior that are considered
less important but still influence how we behave. Table manners are a common
example of informal norms, as are such everyday behaviors as how we interact
with a cashier and how we ride in an elevator.
Many norms differ dramatically from one culture to the next.
Some of the best evidence for cultural variation in norms comes from the study
of sexual behavior (Edgerton, 1976). Among the Pokot of East Africa, for
example, women are expected to enjoy sex, while among the Gusii a few hundred
miles away, women who enjoy sex are considered deviant. In Inis Beag, a small
island off the coast of Ireland, sex is considered embarrassing and even
disgusting; men feel that intercourse drains their strength, while women
consider it a burden. Even nudity is considered terrible, and people on Inis
Beag keep their clothes on while they bathe. The situation is quite different
in Mangaia, a small island in the South Pacific. Here sex is considered very
enjoyable, and it is the major subject of songs and stories.
While many societies frown on homosexuality, others
accept it. Among the Azande of East Africa, for example, young warriors live
with each other and are not allowed to marry. During this time, they often have
sex with younger boys, and this homosexuality is approved by their culture.
Among the Sambia of New Guinea, young males live separately from females and
engage in homosexual behavior for at least a decade. It is felt that the boys
would be less masculine if they continued to live with their mothers and that
the semen of older males helps young boys become strong and fierce.
Although many societies disapprove of
homosexuality, other societies accept it. This difference illustrates the
importance of culture for people’s attitudes.
4. Rituals
Different cultures also have different rituals, or
established procedures and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life
course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other
elements from one generation to the next. Graduation ceremonies in colleges and
universities are familiar examples of time-honored rituals. In many societies,
rituals help signify one’s gender identity. For example, girls around the world
undergo various types of initiation ceremonies to mark their transition to
adulthood. Among the Bemba of Zambia, girls undergo a month-long initiation
ceremony called the chisungu, in which girls learn songs, dances, and secret
terms that only women know.
In some cultures, special ceremonies also mark a girl’s
first menstrual period. Such ceremonies are largely absent in the United
States, where a girl’s first period is a private matter. But in other cultures
the first period is a cause for celebration involving gifts, music, and food.
5. Changing Norms and Beliefs
Our examples show that different
cultures have different norms, even if they share other types of practices and
beliefs. It is also true that norms change over time within a given culture.
Two obvious examples here are hairstyles and clothing styles. When the Beatles
first became popular in the early 1960s, their hair barely covered their ears,
but parents of teenagers back then were aghast at how they looked. If anything,
clothing styles change even more often than hairstyles. Hemlines go up, hemlines
go down. Lapels become wider, lapels become narrower. This color is in, that
color is out. Hold on to your out-of-style clothes long enough, and eventually
they may well end up back in style.
6. Values
Values are
another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or
bad and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its norms. In Japan,
for example, a central value is group harmony. The Japanese place great
emphasis on harmonious social relationships and dislike interpersonal conflict.
Individuals are fairly unassertive by American standards, lest they be
perceived as trying to force their will on others.
When interpersonal disputes do arise, Japanese do their
best to minimize conflict by trying to resolve the disputes amicably. Lawsuits
are thus uncommon; in one case involving disease and death from a
mercury-polluted river, some Japanese who dared to sue the company responsible
for the mercury poisoning were considered bad citizens.
7. The Work Ethic
Another important value in the American
culture is the work ethic. By the 19th century, Americans had come to view hard
work not just as something that had to be done but as something that was
morally good to do (Gini, 2000). The commitment to the work ethic remains
strong today: in the 2008 General Social Survey, 72% of respondents said they
would continue to work even if they got enough money to live as comfortably as
they would like for the rest of their lives.
8. Artifacts
The
last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a
society’s material culture. In the simplest societies, artifacts are largely
limited to a few tools, the huts people live in, and the clothing they wear.
One of the most important inventions in the evolution of society was the wheel.
��Binary scam recovery
ReplyDelete��lost loan money recovery
��money laundry recovery
��Device hack
��Bank issues
��Access to school/company/fellowship/organization files
��Lost cars tracking
��fraud payment
��Access to cheating husband/wife device
��extending and subtracting of stamped file concerning a giving end line period of time
��tracing and recovering lost emails/conversations/contacts / and accessories
ETC
[email protected]
[email protected]
AS LOMG AS ITS TECHNOLOGY IT WILL BE HACKED , with firmwarehacks service you can get all of this and more done !!
❌ Binary Option, Forex and their likes are a means of making money but it’s more like gambling. There are no sure means to guarantee that a person could make profit with them and that’s why it can also be reasoned to be scam. Let’s not forget that some individuals even give you �� % guarantee of making profits and end up running away with your money. The internet today is full of Binary Option Recovery Scam, you see so much testimonies been shared about how a firm or Company helped them recover what they lost to Binary Options. But believe it, it’s just a way to lure more people and end up scamming them.
❌ You might have also come across some individuals that say they will give you guarantee on successful trades but they only end up as SCAMMERS as well. You here them say stuffs like 200% guaranteed in just 2 weeks and when you go into trade with them, they start telling you to pay profits percentage before you can get your income. These are all liars please avoid them. But if you have been a victim of this guys, then you should contact FIRMWARE now‼️
✳️The big Question is “Can someone Recover their money lost to Binary Option and Scam⁉️
I will say yes, and will tell you how.
The only way to Recovery your money back is by hiring HACKERS to help you break into the Firms Database Security System using the information you provide them with, Extract your file and get back your money. It seems like a really impossible thing to do, I will tell you, it should be impossible, but with the use of specially designed softwares known to HACKERS and Authorities (such as The FBI, CIA e.t.c) it is possible and the only way to recover your money.
✅FIRMWARE are a group of hackers who use their hacking skill to hunt down SCAMMERS and help individuals recovery their money from Internet SCAMMERS.
We just need the contact details of the SCAMMERS and Paymnet Info and within 4-8 hours your money will be return to you.
✳️ You can contact us via the emails below-:
[email protected]
[email protected]
2022 ©️ All right reserved ®️