The culture of Nigeria is shaped
by Nigeria's
multiple ethnic groups. The country has 527 languages, seven
of which are extinct. Nigeria also has over 1150 dialects and ethnic
groups. The three largest ethnic groups are
the Hausas that
are predominantly in the north, the Yorubas who
predominate in the southwest, and the Igbos in
the southeast. There are many other ethnic groups with sizeable populations
across the different parts of the country. The Kanuri people are located in the northeast
part of Nigeria, the Tiv people of north
central and the Efik-Ibibio are in the
south south. The Bini people are most
frequent in the region between Yorubaland and Igboland.
Nigeria's
other ethnic groups, sometimes called minorities, and is found throughout the
country but especially in the north and the middle belt. The traditionally nomadic Fulani
can be found all over West and Central Africa. The Fulani and the Hausa is
predominantly Muslim, while the Igbo are predominantly Christian and so are the
Bini and the Efik. The Yoruba are equally likely to be either Christian or
Muslim.
Indigenous
religious practices remain important to all of Nigeria's ethnic groups however,
and frequently these beliefs are blended with Christian or Muslim beliefs, a
practice known as syncretism.
Brief History OF Nigeria
The history of Nigeria can be
traced to settlers trading across the Middle East and Africa as early as 1100
BC. Numerous ancient African civilizations settled in the region that is known
today as Nigeria, such as the Kingdom of Nri, the Benin Empire, and
the Oyo Empire. Islam reached Nigeria through the Bornu
Empire between (1068 AD) and Hausa States around (1385 AD)
during the 11th century, while Christianity
came to Nigeria in the 15th century through Augustinian and Capuchin monks
from Portugal. The Songhai Empire also occupied part of the
region. From the 15th
century, European slave traders arrived in the region to purchase enslaved
Africans as part of the Atlantic slave trade, which started in the region
of modern-day Nigeria; the first Nigerian port used by European slave traders
was Badagry, a coastal harbour. Local merchants provided them with slaves, escalating conflicts
among the ethnic groups in the region and disrupting older trade patterns
through the Trans-Saharan route.
Lagos was
occupied by British forces in 1851 and formally annexed by Britain in
the year 1865. Nigeria
became a British protectorate in 1901. The period of British rule
lasted until 1960, when an independence movement led to the country being
granted independence. Nigeria first became a republic in 1963,
but succumbed to military rule three years later, after a bloody
coup d'état. A separatist movement later formed the Republic of Biafra in
1967, leading to the three-year Nigerian Civil War. Nigeria became a republic again
after a new constitution was written in 1979. However, the republic was
short-lived, as the military seized power again in 1983 and later
ruled for ten years. A new republic was planned to be established in
1993, but was aborted by General Sani Abacha. Abacha died in 1998 and
a fourth republic was later established the following year, which
ended three decades of intermittent military rule.
Major Nigeria ethnic culture
Bini culture
The Binis are located in the South South region of modern
Nigeria. They are ruled by monarchs, and are famous for their Benin
Bronzes. In the pre-colonial period, they controlled a powerful empire.
Hausa-Fulani culture
The Hausa and Fulani live in the northern part of Nigeria.
They are the most populous ethnic grouping in the country, even though the
Hausa and Fulani are in fact different tribes. Like the Efik and Ibibio, they
are counted as one here due to the historic ties that have united them
politically. They have monarchs, are known for celebrating the Hawan Sallah
festival, and are followers of the religious teachings of Sheikh Usman
dan Fodio.
Igbo culture
The eastern part of Nigeria is the home of the Igbos, who are
mostly Christians. Their traditional religion is known as Omenani.
Socially, they are led by monarchs who had limited power historically. These
figures are expected to confer subordinate titles upon men and women that are
highly accomplished. This is known as the Nze na Ozo title
system.
Ijaw culture
The Ijaw culture of the South South has been influenced
greatly by its location on the coast and the interaction with foreigners that
it necessitated. Its members amassed great wealth while serving as middlemen,
and the preponderance of English names among them today is a testament to the trade
names adopted by their ancestors at this time.
Yoruba culture
The Yorubas are located in the western region of Nigeria and their leadership is monarchial in nature. Their chiefs are monarchs and titled individuals, with most of the latter group making up the membership of the Ogboni secret society. Their traditional religion, Ifa, has been recognized by UNESCO as a masterpiece of the oral tradition of Humanity.
Ibibio culture
They are mostly found in Akwa Ibom and Cross River. They are
related to the Annang, and
Efik peoples. During the colonial period in Nigeria, the Ibibio Union
asked for recognition by the British as a sovereign nation (Noah, 1988).
The Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron and Ibeno share personal names, culture, and
traditions with the Ibibio, and speak closely related varieties (dialects) of Ibibio which
are more or less mutually intelligible. The Ekpo/Ekpe
society is a significant part of the Ibibio political system. They use a
variety of masks to execute social control. Body art plays a major role in
Ibibio art.
Nigerian’s Religion
Religious
Beliefs: It is
estimated that 50 percent of Nigerians are Muslim, 40 percent are Christian,
and that the remaining 10 percent practice various indigenous religions.
While Muslims can be found in all
parts of Nigeria, their strongest footholds are among the Hausa and the Yoruba.
Islam in Nigeria is similar to Islam throughout the world. It is based on the
teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, which are outlined in the Qur'an.
Christianity is most prevalent in
the south of Nigeria. The vast majority of Igbo are Christians, as are many
Yorubas. The most popular forms of Christianity in Nigeria include Anglican,
Presbyterian, American Southern Baptist, and Methodist. Also, there are large
pockets of Seventh-Day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses.
Conflict with the way some
missionaries administered the churches during colonial times also created
several breakaway African-Christian churches. Most of these adhere to the
doctrines of Western churches but have introduced African music and tradition
to their Masses. Some have even eased Christian restrictions on polygamy.
Relations between Christians and
Muslims are tense in many areas. Since late 1999, numerous clashes between the
two have led to thousands of deaths. The northern city of Kaduna has been the
flash point for many of these riots, as local leaders discussed whether to
institute Shari'a law in the region. Demonstrations by Christians against the
idea soon led to violent confrontations with Muslims. The debate over Shari'a
law and the violence accompanying it continue in many of the northern states.
While Islam and Christianity are the
dominant religions in Nigeria, neither is completely free of influence from
indigenous religions. Most people who consider themselves good Muslims or good
Christians often also follow local religious practices. This makes up for
perceived shortcomings in their religion. Most indigenous religions are based
on a form of ancestor worship in which family members who have passed into the
spirit world can influence things in the world of the living. This mixing of
traditional ways with Islam has led to groups such as the Bori cult, who use
spirit possession as a way to understand why people are suffering in this life.
The mixing of traditional ways with Christianity has led to the development of
the Aladura Church. Aladura priests follow basic Christian doctrine but also
use prophecy, healing, and charms to ward off witchcraft.
Many Nigerians follow the teachings
of purely indigenous religions. Most of these religions share the idea that one
supreme god created the earth and its people, but has left people to decide
their own paths in life. Followers of the traditional Yoruban religion believe
that hundreds of spirits or minor gods have taken the place of the supreme god
in influencing the daily lives of individuals. Many Yoruban slaves who were
taken to the Caribbean and the Americas brought this religion with them. There
it was used as the basis of Santeria and voodoo.
Because the vast majority of Igbos
converted to Christianity during colonialism, few practice the traditional Igbo
religion, which is based on hundreds of gods, not a single creator.
Religious
Practitioners: According
to Muslim and Christian traditions, officials in these religions tend to be
male. For most indigenous religions, priests and priestesses are common.
Traditional priests and priestesses get their power and influence from their
ability to be possessed by their god or by their ability to tell the future or
to heal. In the Igbo religion men serve as priests to Igbo goddesses, and women
serve as priestesses to Igbo gods. While both men and women can rank high in
the Yoruban religion, women usually are among the most respected of traditional
priests.
Rituals
and Holy Places: Because
many of the indigenous religions are based on various spirits or minor gods,
each with influence over a specific area of nature, many of the traditional
rituals are based on paying homage to these gods and spirits. Likewise, the
area of control for a spirit also marks the places that are holy to that
spirit. For example, a tribe's water spirit may have a specific pond or river
designated as its holy place. The Kalabari, Okrika, and Ikwerre tribes of the
Niger Delta region all have festivals in honor of water spirits sacred to their
peoples. The Yoruba hold a twenty-day Shango festival each year to honor their
god of thunder. Many Igbo consider it bad luck to eat yams from the new harvest
until after the annual Yam Festival, a harvest celebration held in honor of the
Igbo earth goddess Ani.
Death and
the Afterlife: Christian
and Muslim Nigerians believe that following death, a person's soul is released
and judged by God before hopefully going on to Heaven. Many traditional
religions, especially those of the eastern tribes, believe in reincarnation. In
these tribes, people believe that the dead will come back as a member of his or
her mother's or sister's family. Many in-depth ceremonies are necessary to
prepare the body before burial. For example, if the person was inflicted with
some physical disability, steps would be taken to prevent it from being passed
on to him in the next life. An infertile woman may have her abdomen cut open
before burial or a blind man may have a salve made from special leaves placed
over his eyes.
Regardless of religion, Nigerians
bury their dead. This is customary among Christians and Muslims, but it also is
based on traditional beliefs that the body should be returned to the earth that
sustained it during life.
Muslims are buried so that their
heads face the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. For others, it is customary
to bury a man with his head turned toward the east, so he can see the rising
sun. A woman is buried facing west, so she will know when the sun sets and when
it is time to prepare dinner for her husband in the next life. People also
cover the body with black earth during burial because many believe that red
earth will result in skin blemishes in the next life.
The ethnic groups in eastern Nigeria
believe that the more music and dancing at a funeral, the better that person's
chances of a successful afterlife. The size of funerals depends on the social
standing of the deceased. Men are expected to set aside money that will be used
to ensure they have a properly elaborate funeral. Women, children, and
adolescents tend to have much less elaborated funerals.
Political Life of Nigerian
Government:
Nigeria is a
republic, with the president acting as both head of state and head of
government. Nigeria has had a long history of coups d'états, military
rule, and dictatorship. However, this pattern was broken on 29 May 1999 as
Nigeria's current president, Olusegun Obasanjo, took office following popular
elections. Under the current constitution, presidential elections are to be
held every four years, with no president serving more than two terms in office.
The Nigerian legislature consists of two houses: a Senate and a House of
Representatives. All legislators are elected to four-year terms. Nigeria's
judicial branch is headed by a Supreme Court, whose members were appointed by
the Provisional Ruling Council, which ruled Nigeria during its recent
transition to democracy. All Nigerians over age eighteen are eligible to vote.
Leadership
and Political Officials: A wealthy political elite dominates political life in
Nigeria. The relationship between the political elite and ordinary Nigerians is
not unlike that between nobles and commoners. Nigerian leaders, whether as
members of a military regime or one of Nigeria's short-lived civilian
governments, have a history of doing whatever it takes to stay in power and to
hold on to the wealth that this power has given them.
Rural Nigerians tend to accept this
noble-peasant system of politics. Low levels of education and literacy mean
that many people in rural areas are not fully aware of the political process or
how to affect it. Their relative isolation from the rest of the country means
that many do not even think of politics. There is a common feeling in many
rural areas that the average person cannot affect the politics of the country,
so there is no reason to try.
Urban Nigerians tend to be much more
vocal in their support of or opposition to their leaders. Urban problems of
housing, unemployment, health care, sanitation, and traffic tend to mobilize
people into political action and public displays of dissatisfaction.
Political parties were outlawed
under the Abacha regime, and only came back into being after his death. As of
the 1999 presidential elections, there were three main political parties in
Nigeria: the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP), and
the Alliance for Democracy (AD). The PDP is the party of President Obasanjo. It
grew out of support for opposition leaders who were imprisoned by the military
government in the early 1990s. The PDP is widely believed to have received
heavy financial assistance from the military during the 1999 elections. The APP
is led by politicians who had close ties to the Abacha regime. The AD is a
party led by followers of the late Moshood Abiola, the Yoruba politician who
won the general election in 1993, only to be sent to prison by the military
regime.
Social
Problems and Control: Perhaps Nigeria's greatest social problem is the internal
violence plaguing the nation. Interethnic fighting throughout the country,
religious rioting between Muslims and non-Muslims over the creation of Shari'a
law (strict Islamic law) in the northern states, and political confrontations
between ethnic minorities and backers of oil companies often spark bloody
confrontations that can last days or even months. When violence of this type
breaks out, national and state police try to control it. However, the police
themselves are often accused of some of the worst violence. In some instances,
curfews and martial law have been imposed in specific areas to try to stem
outbreaks of unrest.
Poverty and lack of opportunity for many
young people, especially in urban areas, have led to major crime. Lagos is
considered one of the most dangerous cities in West Africa due to its
incredibly high crime rate. The police are charged with controlling crime, but
their lack of success often leads to vigilante justice.
In some rural areas there are some
more traditional ways of addressing social problems. In many ethnic groups,
such as the Igbo and the Yoruba, men are organized into secret societies.
Initiated members of these societies often dress in masks and palm leaves to
masquerade as the physical embodiment of traditional spirits to help maintain
social order. Through ritual dance, these men will give warnings about problems
with an individual's or community's morality in a given situation. Because
belief in witchcraft and evil spirits is high throughout Nigeria, this kind of
public accusation can instill fear in people and cause them to mend their ways.
Members of secret societies also can act as judges or intermediaries in
disputes.
Military
Activity: Nigeria's
military consists of an army, a navy, an air force, and a police force. The
minimum age for military service is eighteen.
The Nigerian military is the largest
and best-equipped military in West Africa. As a member of the Economic Community
of West African States (ECOWAS), Nigeria is the major contributor to the
organization's military branch, known as ECOMOG. Nigerian troops made up the
vast majority of the ECOMOG forces deployed to restore peace following civil
wars in Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, and Sierra Leone. Public dissatisfaction with
Nigeria's participation in the Sierra Leonean crisis was extremely high due to
high casualty rates among the Nigerian soldiers. Nigeria pledged to pull out of
Sierra Leone in 1999, prompting the United Nations to send in peacekeepers in
an attempt stem the violence. While the foreign forces in Sierra Leone are now
under the mandate of the United Nations, Nigerian troops still make up the
majority of the peacekeepers.
Nigeria has a long-running border
dispute with Cameroon over the mineral-rich Bakasi Peninsula, and the two
nations have engaged in a series of cross-border skirmishes. Nigeria, Cameroon,
Niger, and Chad also have a long-running border dispute over territory in the
Lake Chad region, which also has led to some fighting across the borders.
Social Welfare and Change Programs of Nigerians
Severe poverty, human rights
violations, and corruption are some of the major social ills that have plagued
Nigeria for decades. Because Nigeria is in the midst of major political change,
however, there is great hope for social reform in the country.
President Obasanjo's administration
has been focusing much of its efforts on changing the world's image of Nigeria.
Many foreign companies have been reluctant to invest in Nigeria for fear of
political instability. Obasanjo hopes that if Nigeria can project the image of
a stable nation, he can coax foreign investors to come to Nigeria and help
bolster the country's failing economy. The World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) are also working with Nigeria to develop economic policies
that will revitalize the nation's economy.
Obasanjo also says that rooting out
corruption in all levels of government is one of his top priorities.
He signed the
Anti-Corruption Act in June 2000, creating a special commission for
investigating charges of corruption brought by ordinary Nigerians against
government officials.
According to Amnesty International's
2000 report, Nigeria's new government continues to make strides in improving
human rights throughout the country, most notably in the release of political
prisoners. However, the detention of journalists critical of the military and
reports of police brutality continue to be problems. Foreign governments and
watchdog organizations continue to press the Nigerian government for further
human rights reforms.
Food and Economy of Nigeria
Food in
Daily Life: Western
influences, especially in urban centers, have transformed Nigerian eating
habits in many ways. City dwellers are familiar with the canned, frozen, and
prepackaged foods found in most Western-style supermarkets. Foreign restaurants
also are common in larger cities. However, supermarkets and restaurants often
are too expensive for the average Nigerian; thus only the wealthy can afford to
eat like Westerners. Most urban Nigerians seem to combine traditional cuisine
with a little of Western-style foods and conveniences. Rural Nigerians tend to
stick more with traditional foods and preparation techniques.
Food in Nigeria is traditionally
eaten by hand. However, with the growing influence of Western culture, forks
and spoons are becoming more common, even in remote villages. Whether people
eat with their hand or a utensil, it is considered dirty and rude to eat using
the left hand.
While the ingredients in traditional
plates vary from region to region, most Nigerian cuisine tends to be based
around a few staple foods accompanied by a stew. In the south, crops such as
corn, yams, and sweet potatoes form the base of the diet. These vegetables are
often pounded into a thick, sticky dough or paste. This is often served with a
palm oil based stew made with chicken, beef, goat, tomatoes, okra, onions,
bitter leaves, or whatever meats and vegetables might be on hand. Fruits such
as papaya, pineapples, coconuts, oranges, mangoes, and bananas also are very
common in the tropical south.
In the north, grains such as millet,
sorghum, and corn are boiled into a porridge-like dish that forms the basis of
the diet. This is served with an oilbased soup usually flavored with onions,
okra, and tomatoes. Sometimes meat is included, though among the Hausa it is
often reserved for special occasions. Thanks to the Fulani cattle herders,
fresh milk and yogurt are common even though there may not be refrigeration.
Alcohol is very popular in the south
but less so in the north, where there is a heavy Islamic influence. Perhaps the
most popular form of alcohol is palm wine, a tart alcoholic drink that comes
from palm trees. Palm wine is often distilled further to make a strong, ginlike
liquor. Nigerian breweries also produce several kinds of beer and liquor.
Food
Customs at Ceremonial Occasions: Food plays a central role in the rituals of virtually all
ethnic groups in Nigeria. Special ceremonies would not be complete without
participants sharing in a meal. Normally it is considered rude not to invite
guests to share in a meal when they visit; it is even more so if the visitors
were invited to attend a special event such as a marriage or a naming ceremony.
Basic
Economy: Until
the past few decades, Nigeria had been self-sufficient in producing enough food
to feed the population. However, as petroleum production and industry began to
boom in Nigeria, much of the national resources were concentrated on the new
industries at the expense of agriculture.
Nigeria, which had
previously been a net exporter of agricultural products, soon needed to import
vast amounts of food it once was able to produce for itself.
Gender Roles and Statuses of Nigeria
Division of Labor
by Gender: In general, labor is divided in
Nigerian society along gender lines. Very few women are active in the political
and professional arenas. In urban areas, increasing numbers of women are
becoming involved in the professional workforce, but they are greatly
outnumbered by their male counterparts. Women who do manage to gain
professional employment rarely make it into the higher levels of management.
However,
women in Nigeria still play significant roles in the economy, especially in
rural areas. Women are often expected to earn significant portions of the
family income. As a rule, men have little obligation to provide for their wives
or children. Therefore women have traditionally had to farm or sell homemade
products in the local market to ensure that they could feed and clothe their
children. The division of labor along gender lines even exists within
industries. For example, the kinds of crops that women cultivate differ from
those that men cultivate. In Igbo society, yams are seen as men's crops, while
beans and cassava are seen as women's crops.
The Relative
Status of Women and Men: Modern Nigeria is a
patriarchal society. Men are dominant over women in virtually all areas. While
Nigeria is a signatory to the international Convention on Equality for Women,
it means little to the average Nigerian woman. Women still have fewer legal
rights than men. According to Nigeria's Penal Code, men have the right to beat
their wives as long as they do not cause permanent physical injury. Wives are
often seen as little more than possessions and are subject to the rule of their
husbands.
However,
women can exercise influence in some areas. For example, in most ethnic groups,
mothers and sisters have great say in the lives of their sons and brothers,
respectively. The blood relationship allows these women certain leeway and
influence that a wife does not have.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship in Nigeria
Marriage: There are three types of
marriage in Nigeria today: religious marriage, civil marriage, and traditional
marriage. A Nigerian couple may decide to take part in one or all of these
marriages. Religious marriages, usually Christian or Muslim, are conducted
according to the norms of the respective religious teachings and take place in
a church or a mosque. Christian males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim
men can take up to four wives. Civil official weddings take place in a
government registry office. Men are allowed only one wife under a civil
wedding, regardless of religion. Traditional marriages usually are held at the
wife's house and are performed according to the customs of the ethnic group
involved. Most ethnic groups traditionally allow more than one wife.
Depending on whom you ask, polygamy has both advantages
and disadvantages in Nigerian society. Some Nigerians see polygamy as a
divisive force in the family, often pitting one wife against another. Others
see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a built-in support system that
allows wives to work as a team.
While Western ways of courtship and marriage are not
unheard of, the power of traditional values and the strong influence of the
family mean that traditional ways are usually followed, even in the cities and
among the elite. According to old customs, women did not have much choice of
whom they married, though the numbers of arranged marriages are declining. It
is also not uncommon for women to marry in their teens, often to a much older
man. In instances where there are already one or more wives, it is the first
wife's responsibility to look after the newest wife and help her integrate into
the family.
Many Nigerian ethnic groups follow the practice of
offering a bride price for an intended wife. Unlike a dowry, in which the woman
would bring something of material value to the marriage, a bride price is some
form of compensation the husband must pay before he can marry a wife. A bride
price can take the form of money, cattle, wine, or other valuable goods paid to
the woman's family, but it also can take a more subtle form. Men might
contribute money to the education of an intended wife or help to establish her
in a small-scale business or agricultural endeavor. This form of bride price is
often incorporated as part of the wooing process. While women who leave their
husbands will be welcomed back into their families, they often need a
justification for breaking the marriage. If the husband is seen as having
treated his wife well, he can expect to have the bride price repaid.
Though customs vary from group to group, traditional
weddings are often full of dancing and lively music. There is also lots of
excitement and cultural displays. For example, the Yoruba have a practice in
which the bride and two or three other women come out covered from head to toe
in a white shroud. It is the groom's job to identify his wife from among the
shrouded women to show how well he knows his wife.
Divorce is quite common in Nigeria. Marriage is more of
a social contract made to ensure the continuation of family lines rather than a
union based on love and emotional connections. It is not uncommon for a husband
and wife to live in separate homes and to be extremely independent of one
another. In most ethnic groups, either the man or the woman can end the
marriage. If the woman leaves her husband, she will often be taken as a second
or third wife of another man. If this is the case, the new husband is
responsible for repaying the bride price to the former husband. Children of a
divorced woman are normally accepted into the new family as well, without any
problems.
Domestic Unit: The majority of Nigerian
families are very large by Western standards. Many Nigerian men take more than
one wife. In some ethnic groups, the greater the number of children, the
greater a man's standing in the eyes of his peers. Family units of ten or more
are not uncommon.
In a polygamous family, each wife is responsible for
feeding and caring for her own children, though the wives often help each other
when needed. The wives also will take turns feeding their husband so that the
cost of his food is spread equally between or among the wives. Husbands are the
authority figures in the household, and many are not used to their ideas or
wishes being challenged.
In most Nigerian cultures, the father has his crops to
tend to, while his wives will have their own jobs, whether they be tending the
family garden, processing palm oil, or selling vegetables in the local market.
Children may attend school. When they return home, the older boys will help
their father with his work, while the girls and younger boys will go to their
mothers.
Inheritance: For many Nigerian ethnic groups, such
as the Hausa and the Igbo, inheritance is basically a male affair. Though women
have a legal right to inheritance in Nigeria, they often receive nothing. This
is a reflection of the forced economic independence many women live under.
While their husbands are alive, wives are often responsible for providing for
themselves and their children. Little changes economically after the death of
the husband. Property and wealth are usually passed on to sons, if they are old
enough, or to other male relatives, such as brothers or uncles.
For the Fulani, if a man dies, his brother inherits his
property and his wife. The wife usually returns to live with her family, but
she may move in with her husband's brother and become his wife.
Kin Groups: While men dominate Igbo
society, women play an important role in kinship. All Igbos, men and women,
have close ties to their mother's clan, which usually lives in a different
village. When an Igbo dies, the body is usually sent back to his mother's
village to be buried with his mother's kin. If an Igbo is disgraced or cast out
of his community, his mother's kin will often take him in.
For the Hausa, however, there is not much of a sense of
wide-ranging kinship. Hausa society is based on the nuclear family. There is a
sense of a larger extended family, including married siblings and their
families, but there is little kinship beyond that. However, the idea of blood
being thicker than water is very strong in Hausa society. For this reason, many
Hausas will try to stretch familial relationships to the broader idea of clan
or tribe to diffuse tensions between or among neighbors.
Socialization in Nigeria
Infant
Care: Newborns
in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride. They represent a community's and
a family's future and often are the main reason for many marriages.
Throughout Nigeria, the bond between
mother and child is very strong. During the first few years of a child's life,
the mother is never far away. Nigerian women place great importance on
breast-feeding and the bond that it creates between mother and child. Children
are often not weaned off their mother's milk until they are toddlers.
Children who are too young to walk
or get around on their own are carried on their mother's backs, secured by a
broad cloth that is tied around the baby and fastened at the mother's breasts.
Women will often carry their children on their backs while they perform their
daily chores or work in the fields.
Child Rearing
and Education: When
children reach the age of about four or five, they often are expected to start
performing a share of the household duties. As the children get older, their
responsibilities grow. Young men are expected to help their fathers in the
fields or tend the livestock. Young women help with the cooking, fetch water,
or do laundry. These tasks help the children learn how to become productive members
of their family and community. As children, many Nigerians learn that laziness
is not acceptable; everyone is expected to contribute.
While children in most Nigerian
societies have responsibilities, they also are allowed enough leeway to be
children. Youngsters playing with homemade wooden dolls and trucks, or groups
of boys playing soccer are common sights in any Nigerian village.
In many Nigerian ethnic groups, the
education of children is a community responsibility. For example, in the Igbo
culture the training of children is the work of both men and women, within the
family and outside it. Neighbors often look after youngsters while parents may
be busy with other chores. It is not strange to see a man disciplining a child
who is not his own.
All Nigerian children are supposed
to have access to a local elementary school. While the government aims to
provide universal education for both boys and girls, the number of girls in
class is usually much lower than the number of boys. Sending every child in a
family to school can often put a lot of strain on a family. The family will
lose the child's help around the house during school hours and will have to pay
for uniforms and supplies. If parents are forced to send one child to school
over another, many will choose to educate boys before girls.
Higher
Education: Historically,
Nigerians have been very interested in higher education. The lack of
universities providing quality education equal to that in Britain was a major
component of the social reforms that led to Nigeria's independence. Today there
are forty-three universities in Nigeria. The majority of these are
government-run, but the government has recently approved the creation of three
private universities.
While Nigeria's system of higher education
is the largest in Africa, the demand for higher education far exceeds the
capacity of the facilities. There simply are not enough institutions to
accommodate the demand. In 1998 only thirty-five thousand students were
accepted to Nigerian universities out of a pool of more than four hundred
thousand applicants.
Nigeria also has 125 technical
training schools. The majority of these focus on polytechnic and agricultural
training, with a few specializing in areas such as petroleum sciences and
health.
Etiquette
Age is greatly respected in Nigeria.
In an area where the average life expectancy is not very high, those who live
into their senior years are seen as having earned special rights of respect and
admiration. This is true of both men and women.
Socially, greetings are of the
utmost importance. A handshake and a long list of well wishes for a
counterpart's family and good health are expected when meeting someone. This is
often true even if you have seen that person a short time earlier. Whether you
are talking to a bank teller or visiting a friend, it is considered rude not to
engage in a proper greeting before getting down to business.
Shaking hands, eating, or passing
things with the left hand are unacceptable. The left hand is reserved for personal
toiletries and is considered dirty.
Medicine and Health Care in Nigeria
Nigerians, like people in many
developing countries, suffer from widespread disease and a poor health care
system. Malaria, HIV/AIDS, parasitic infections, and childhood diseases are
rampant throughout the country. Widespread poverty also contributes to the poor
level of health care, as many people shy away from modern treatments that are
too expensive. Corruption at all levels of government makes it difficult for
health care funding to trickle down to the average Nigerian. Underfunding and
neglect have left many clinics and hospitals in poor physical condition and
without modern equipment. Pharmacies, both state-run and private, regularly run
out of medicines. Patients looking for cheaper remedies often turn to
black-market vendors, who often sell expired or counterfeit drugs. There also
is a shortage of qualified medical personnel to adequately treat the whole
population.
In 2000, the estimated life
expectancy of Nigerian men and women was fifty-one years. The estimated infant
mortality rate was over 7 percent, or about seventy-four infant deaths for
every thousand live births.
AIDS has extracted a devastating
toll on Nigeria. The World Health Organization and UNAIDS estimated that 2.7
million Nigerian adults were living with AIDS or HIV in 1999. The vast majority
of Nigerians who are HIV-positive do not know it. Some 1.7 million Nigerians
had already died of the disease by the end of 1999. The primary mode of HIV
transmission in Nigeria is through heterosexual intercourse.
Both Western and traditional forms
of medicine are popular in Nigeria. Traditional medicine, also known as juju, is
common at the rural level. Practitioners of juju use a variety of plants and
herbs in their cures. Most families also have their own secret remedies for
minor health problems.
Many rural people do not trust
Western-style medicine, preferring instead to use traditional ways. In many
instances the traditional medicine is very effective and produces fewer side
effects than modern drugs. Most of modern medicine's prescription drugs grew
out of traditional herbal remedies. However, there are conditions in which
traditional medicine can do more harm than good. Sometimes this leads to
conflict between the government-sponsored health care system and traditional
ways. Some organizations are now looking at ways to combine the two in an
attempt to coax people back into health centers.
The federal government is
responsible for the training of health care workers and running nationwide
health campaigns such as those aimed at fighting AIDS, Guinea worm infection,
river blindness, and leprosy.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
While Nigeria's system of higher
education is better than most in Africa, many of its best and brightest
students go to universities in the United States or Europe in search of better
facilities and academic support. These students often stay abroad, where there
are more opportunities to pursue their talents and to benefit economically.
This loss of sharp and influential minds has left the physical and social
sciences in a poorer state than they need be. The few sciences that are
thriving in Nigeria, such as geology and petroleum sciences, are often headed
by non-Nigerians, brought in by foreign companies that have contracts to
exploit Nigeria's natural resources.
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